Save

Print

Email Page

Post Comment

Joshua Jacobson, founder and artistic director of the Boston Zamir Chorale; composer; musician; educator; and scholar. He recently published the comprehensive Chanting the Hebrew Bible: The Complete Guide to the Art of Cantillation e-mail : zamir@comcast.net

Salamone Rossi was active at the court of the Gonzaga family in Mantua at the turn of the seventeenth century as violinist and composer. He achieved fame through the music he composed in the most modern styles of the time, but in his later years he also applied the old-fashioned polyphonic principles to the liturgy of his own people, a move that was as controversial as it may have been popular.

Very little is known about the details of Rossi's life, but we may surmise that he was born about 1570 and died about 1630. The composer was a descendant of the illustrious Italian-Jewish family "de Rossi" — which is the Italian translation of the Hebrew family name "Me-Ha-Adumim." This proud family, which included the famous and controversial Bible scholar Azariah de Rossi and a number of fine musicians, traced its ancestry back to the exiles from Jerusalem, carried away to Rome by Titus in the year 70 of the Christian era.

What little information we do have is gleaned from his published works, consisting of six books of madrigals, one book of duets, one book of canzonets, four books of instrumental works (including sonatas, sinfonias and various dance pieces), a single balletto, and a path-breaking collection of Hebrew motets for the synagogue.

Living in the shadow of such great figures as Monteverdi and Gastoldi, Rossi has generally been overlooked by historians and performers; yet much of his music posesses great depth and charm. Moreover, in several ways, Rossi was in the avant-garde. He was the first madrigal composer to favor the so-called mannerist poets. (Mannerist poetry is characterized by a serious self-consciousness; love is the subject of nearly every poem — love often unrequited — and the poet sees himself as a martyr, dying, sighing, suffering and burning with passion for his beloved).

In the field of instrumental music, Rossi likewise occupied a pioneering position. His book of Sinfonie e Gagliarde, published in 1607, contains the first trio-sonatas in the literature. Further, he is the composer of the only extant collection of polyphonic music for the synagogue (Hashirim Asher Lish'lomo, 1622) to appear in print before the nineteenth century.

Humanism and Jewish Music

When the winds of humanism swept over Italy in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, many Jewish communities experienced a profound change of orientation as they abandoned their centuries-old state of isolation and began to intermingle with their Christian neighbors with a freedom hitherto unknown. Caught up in this fervor of a new age, Jews for the first time studied Western music, as well as painting, dancing, theater, philosophy and literature. By the mid-sixteenth century, many Jews were employed in the various Italian ducal courts as instrumentalists, composers, actors and dancing masters.

The most talented of this circle of Jewish artists was Salamone Rossi, who epitomizes the Italian Jewish community's participation in the artistic efflorescence of the Renaissance. On the one hand, Rossi had left the confines of the Jewish community to work at the court of the Gonzagas as a colleage of Monteverdi, Gastoldi and Viadana. As a composer, he was well known for his work in the popular vocal and instrumental forms of the day. His employers thought so highly of him that they even exempted him from wearing the yellow badge of shame that was required to mark the attire of all Jews at that time.

Yet, on the other hand, Rossi was never totally assimilated into the Christian community. On the title pages of his published compositions his name appears as "Salamon(e) Rossi Hebreo." Despite his participation in the artistic life of the Mantuan court, he remained involved in a Jewish theater troupe and a Jewish instrumental ensemble. Furthermore, unlike his Christian colleagues, he composed no liturgical music for the church.

Indeed, Rossi's unique niche in the history of liturgical music stems from his unique collection of synagogue motets, the composition of which drew on both his knowledge of the prevailing styles of church music and his command of the Hebrew language. Rossi succeeded in a difficult balancing act; he was able to remain active in two conflicting worlds without having to compromise his artistic goals or his religious conviction.

Sacred Synagogue Music

In 1623 the publishing house of Bragadini in Venice issued a collection that was the first of its kind, and it was destined to remain unique for over two hundred years. This publication consisted of polyphonic settings by Salamone Rossi of thirty-three psalms and hymns. What made this collection so unique was the fact that these works were not Latin motets for the church, they were Hebrew motets for the synagogue. In order to understand better the significance of this publication, we shall digress briefly to examine the nature and sources of seventeenth-century Italian synagogue music.

After the Roman destruction of the Jewish kingdom in the first century of the common era, a large portion of the population was forced into exile. Surrounded by alien cultures, the Jews of the diaspora preserved as best they could the chants of their Mideastern homeland. The use of musical instruments in the synagogue was prohibited as a sign of mourning for the lost musical traditions of the great Temple that once stood in Jerusalem. Furthermore, lest the ancient chanting modes become diluted, the Rabbis zealously guarded against the introduction of any Gentile elements into the sacred music of the synagogue

Thus, while polyphony was developing in the Western church, Jewish worship music remained basically monophonic, modal, improvised from a set of basic melodic formulas, and closely bound to the natural rhythms of the texts. Cantors were most often laymen drawn from a congregation that was generally well-acquainted with the Hebrew liturgy and its music. Example 9 is a transcription of a chant which ma have been sung in a seventeenth-century Italian synagogue.

Seen thus in its context, Salamone Rossi's collection of synagogue motets represents a radical break from tradition. While in the church polyphonic music had been evolving for more than four centuries, in the synagogue it was suddenly grafted onto a tradition that had maintained its monophonic nature for more than sixteen centuries.

Rossi's sacred works were composed in the first decades of the seventeenth century and published in 1622. The title of the collection, Hashirim Asher Lish'lomo (The Songs of Solomon) is a play on words referring to both the title of the biblical book of love songs and the first name of the composer. While this work represented a bold innovation for the synagogue, it did not differ greatly from the conventions of early Baroque music. Like contemporary collections of sacred music, it contained a variety of liturgical forms. The thirty-three motets, set for from three to eight voice parts, include psalms, hymns and prayers for the Sabbath and holiday services (or for concerts of sacred music) and one wedding ode.

Having virtually no precedent in the polyphonic setting of the synagogue liturgy, Rossi was free to borrow, alter or reject a wide variety of styles, Mideastern and Western. Wisely, he did not attempt to employ any of the musical characteristics of the ancient Jewish chants. Their oriental modality, rhythmic freedom and improvisatory nature would not have blended well with contemporary techniques of European polyphony. The synagogue could not accomplish overnight what had taken centuries to develop in the church. Instead, Rossi availed himself of the current styles of European art-music -- sacred and secular--from stile antico polyphony to the nascent trends in monody, cori spezzati, and seconda prattica chromaticism.

Yet, on the other hand, the composer felt himself bound to certain traditions of the synagogue. In deference to the rabbinic prohibition against instrumental music in the synagogue, Rossi set the entire collection for unaccompanied chorus. Of course, it may be surmised that if performances took place outside of the synagogue, instruments might have been used to double the voices, as was a widespread practice of the time. Although there are no direct references to indicate whether the treble parts would have been sung by women or boys, we may assume the latter. Like the Christian church fathers, the Rabbis did not allow mixed voices in the worship service.

Motets meets controversy

Despite his reverential approach to the text, Rossi found that his musical innovation caused a great deal of controversy. From the correspondence of Rabbi Leone of Modena, we gather the following incident which took place in a synagogue in Ferrara in the first decade of the seventeenth century.

We have among us some connoisseurs of the science of singing, that is to say of music, six or eight knowledgeable persons of our community...who raise their voices at the festivals, and they sing at the synagogue songs of praise... in honor of God according to [musical] rules and the proportions of the voices.... But a man stood up to chase them away...saying that it is not right to do so, because it is forbidden to rejoice, and...[that the singing of] hymns and praises...according to the mentioned science of singing is forbidden.... Although the congregation clearly enjoyed [our singing]... [this man] rose against us and condemned us publicly, saying that we had sinned before God.


Anticipating a great furor to arise over the publication of this controversial volume of synagogue music, Rossi's friend, the liberal Rabbi Leone, himself an amateur musician, supplied as a preface to the collection a lengthy and learned responsum on the subject of music in the synagogue. His conclusion was unequivocal:

I do not see how anyone with a brain in his skull could cast any doubt on the propriety of praising God in song in the synaogue on special Sabbaths and on festivals.... No intelligent person, no scholar ever thought of forbidding the use of the greatest possible beauty of voice in praising the Lord, blessed be He, nor the use of musical art which awakens the soul to His glory.(33)

This preface to Rossi's collection concludes with a copyright notice that is the first of its kind in protecting the rights of a composer. Its warning was couched in no uncertain terms:
We have agreed to the reasonable and proper request of the worthy and honored Master Salamone Rossi of Mantua...who has become by his painstaking labors the first man to print Hebrew music. He has laid out a large disbursement which has not been provided for, and it is not proper that anyone should harm him by reprinting similar copies or purchasing them from a source other than himself.

Therefore... we the undersigned decree by the authority of the angels and the word of the holy ones, invoking the curse of the serpent's bite, that no Israelite, wherever he may be, may print the music contained in this work in any manner, in whole or in part, without the permission of the above mentioned author....Let every Israelite hearken and stand in fear of being entrapped by this ban and curse. And those who hearken will dwell in confidence and ease, abiding in blessing under the shelter of the Almighty. Amen.(34)
volume such as this should awaken our interest, even if the music were insignificant. In fact, many of these motets are choral gems that are attractive even apart from historical curiosity or ethnic pride.
The uniqueness and success of this collection of motets lay in the ability of its composer to fuse Jewish and Gentile elements without compromising either one. Indeed, Rossi had his feet in both worlds: he lived in Mantua's walled-in ghetto but worked in the royal court of the Gonzagas. As we know, his patrons generously exempted him from wearing the shameful yelow Jew-badge, but when in signing his publications he consistently and voluntarily appended the word "Hebreo" (or "Ebreo") to his name.

Adon Olam -Synagogue Motets

"ADON OLAM -- Lord of the Universe," 8-part motet. The practice of cori spezzati, i.e. antiphonal choirs, spatially separated, spread throughout Italy during Baroque times. Typical of Rossi's writing for this medium is a texture created with blocks of sound which alternate, dovetail and, at climatic moments, come together to create a full eight-part texture.

Adon Olam, the Hebrew hymn that concludes the Sabbath and festival morning services, praises God's eternity and unity and expressesman's absolute trust in Him. While some attribute it to the great 11th-century Spanish poet, Solomon ibn Gabirol, other scholars believe the poem is much older, perhaps even from the period of the Babylonian exile.

The hymn has appeared in German Jewish liturgy since the 14th century, and has spread to almost every rite and community. In the Ashkenazi version it has 12 rhyming couplets, while in the Sephardi rite it has 16.

Surprisingly, in Rossi's setting the music is not strophic, as is normal in congregational hymns; instead, the music grows organically from verse to verse with only limited thematic recurrence.

Translation of Adon Olam -- Lord of the Universe:

Lord of the world who has reigned
From the time's beginning,
Since Creation's day was accomplished,
Walking uprightly after His intent.
When everything emerged from nothing,
His might will remain alone,
As He was in majesty,
He was and ever will be so.

He has neither beginning nor end,
His being is might and splendor,
He is the redemption's light,
A rock and protector in testing time,
When my mouth praises Him imploringly,
He is my salvation, a radiant light.
To Him I commend my body and spirit
God is with me, I shall nothing fear.

Ode to Artist

The impact of Rossi’s collection of motets on the liberal Jewish community of Mantua can perhaps be best summed up in this poem by Rabbi Leon of Modena. Leone da Modena (Judah Aryeh) (1574 - 1648) was a scholar, musician, rabbi of the Venetian community, and founder of the first artistic choir in synagogal history:

Let [King David] rejoice in the depths of his heart,
And find gladness in it above all...hidden treasures.
For there has arisen in Israel...one bearing the name of [Solomon], son of [King David];
One of great talent, versed in the singer's skill,
Who has performed music before princes, yea even dukes and nobles ....
He set the words of the Psalms of David into music, organized [into parts],
Designating them for gladsome song before the Ark on Sabbaths, feasts and festive seasons....
Let all those who take hold of the harp, timbrel and psaltery
Raise their song today!
Let your voices sound forth well!
Hearken to my song, all you sweet-voiced singers!

Rossi on spiritual inspiration

Salamone Rossi speaks of the spiritual inspiration for his synagogue choral music:

"From the time that the Lord God first opened my ears and granted me the power to understand and to teach the science of music, I have used this wisdom to compose many songs. Out of the many ideas within me, my soul has delighted to take the choicest of all as an offering of the voice wherewith to give thanks to Him who rides upon the Heavens with a sound of gladsome thanksgiving; for we have been given voices so that we may honor the Lord, each with the blessings of talent that we were given to enjoy.

"The Lord has been my strength and He has put new songs into my mouth. Inspired, I wove these into an arrangement of sweet sounds, and I designated them for items of rejoicing on the holy festivals. I did not restrain my lips, but ever increased my striving to enhance the Psalms of David, King of Israel, until I set many of them and shaped them into proper harmonic form, so that they would have greater stature for discriminating ears.

"Since it was the Lord who granted me the artistic spirit to recognize beauty, it is to Him that I have raised my voice in service. I felt that it would be proper to benefit the congregation by publishing a selection of my motets, which I composed not for my own glory, but for the glory of my Father in Heaven, who created this soul within me. Therefore I will give thanks to Him evermore."

Source: Jewish Heritage Online Magazine

Related Links: